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Pupillary dynamics during hands-off L2 driving and transitions of control under high cognitive load.

Code ↔ Paper

9 matches between paragraphs of the paper and lines of its authors' code, computed by the harvester (lexical-v1). Click a colored paragraph or line to see its counterpart.

The 9 matches
  1. [1] § 2. Method › 2.4 Data preparation and statistical modelling › 2.4.1 Pupillometry pre-processing. ↔ Code/1_pupils_cleaning.Rmd, lines 184–260 · score 0.67 · 0.05–4 Hz, linearly interpolated, Hanning, butterworth, tagged, tonic
  2. [2] § 2. Method › 2.3 Design and procedure ↔ Code/pupils_entropy_subjective.Rmd, lines 311–348 · score 0.66 · NASA TLX, subjective workload, critical event, vehicle
  3. [3] § 2. Method › 2.4 Data preparation and statistical modelling › 2.4.1 Pupillometry pre-processing. ↔ Code/2_pupils_modelling.Rmd, lines 646–690 · score 0.64 · pseudo change, cubic, subtracted, evoked, fitted, dilation
  4. [4] § 2. Method › 2.1 Participants ↔ Code/2_pupils_modelling.Rmd, lines 145–174 · score 0.64 · gender split, annually, miles, UK, license, age
  5. [5] § 3. Results › 3.6 Post-hoc analysis: driver gaze during transitions of control ↔ Code/2_pupils_modelling.Rmd, lines 1324–1364 · score 0.60 · pitch angle, post hoc, gaze distribution, variables, modelled, windows
  6. [6] § 2. Method › 2.2 Apparatus and materials ↔ Code/pupils_entropy_subjective.Rmd, lines 311–348 · score 0.58 · NASA TLX, subjective workload, gaze, pupil
  7. [7] § 3. Results › 3.6 Post-hoc analysis: driver gaze during transitions of control ↔ Code/2_pupils_modelling.Rmd, lines 1413–1504 · score 0.53 · dashboard area, post transition, pre RTI, gaze
  8. [8] § 3. Results › 3.1 Effect of N-back and lead vehicle presence on pupil diameter during hands-off L2 driving ↔ Code/2_pupils_modelling.Rmd, lines 446–527 · score 0.51 · credible intervals, pupil diameter increased, lead vehicle, CI, predicted
  9. [9] § 3. Results › 3.6 Post-hoc analysis: driver gaze during transitions of control ↔ Code/2_pupils_modelling.Rmd, lines 1324–1364 · score 0.50 · pitch angle, pre RTI, Modelling, Post, window, hoc

Paper

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The authors' code

R Markdown · 1,504 lines · 65 KB · no license · 6 matches

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Overview

Authors: Courtney M. Goodridge1,2, Rafael C. Gonçalves2, Ali Arabian2, Anthony Horrobin2, Albert Solernou2, Yee Thung Lee2, Audrey Bruneau3, Jonny Kuo4, Michael G. Lenné4, Gaëtan Merlhiot5, Yee Mun Lee2, Natasha Merat2
ORCID iDs: Courtney M. Goodridge, Ali Arabian, Yee Thung Lee
  1. School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
  2. Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
  3. Toyota Motor Europe, Brussels, Belgium
  4. Seeing Machines, Canberra, Australia
  5. VEDECOM Institute, Versailles, France
Institutions: University of Leeds (United Kingdom); Toyota Motor Corporation (Belgium) (Belgium); VeDeCoM Institute (France)
Journal: PloS one, volume 21, issue 8, article e0355165
Dates: received 23 October 2025; accepted 19 July 2026; published online 11 August 2026
Type: Research article · Language: English
License: CC BY
Identifiers: DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0355165 · PMID 42579679 · PMCID PMC13460587 · OpenAlex W7202206070
Open access: gold, a free copy (OpenAlex)
Status: code verified
Categories: human (organism), cognitive (subfield)
Methods: Spectral & time-frequency, Preprocessing, Physiology & signal measures
MeSH: Automobile Driving*, Cognition*, Pupil*, Adult, Arousal, Female, Humans, Male, Psychomotor Performance, Reaction Time, Young Adult (* major topic)
Journal subjects: Biology and Life Sciences, Neuroscience, Cognitive Science, Cognitive Neuroscience, Reaction Time, Psychology, Behavior, Social Sciences, Cognitive Psychology, Attention, Vigilance, Anatomy, Ocular System, Ocular Anatomy, Pupil, Medicine and Health Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Navigation, Steering, Civil Engineering, Transportation Infrastructure, Roads, Transportation, Cognition
Topic: Sleep and Work-Related Fatigue (Experimental and Cognitive Psychology, Psychology), according to OpenAlex
Funding: HORIZON EUROPE Innovative Europe (101006664)
Citations: not cited yet (Europe PMC); 113 references in the paper

Abstract

Arousal plays a vital role in facilitating the human ability to respond flexibly in a goal-directed manner, and pupillometry offers a non-invasive window into arousal-related neural processes given the close relationship between pupil size and Locus Coeruleus-Norepinephrine (LC-NE) activity. Whilst pupillometry has been used to detect cognitive load in manual and automated driving, the dynamic relationship between pre-stimulus (baseline) pupillary state and task-evoked pupillary responses (TEPRs) has not been investigated in driving contexts. This is important because variability in baseline pupil size – itself influenced by cognitive demands such as non-driving related task engagement – may contribute to variability in TEPRs independently of how drivers respond to critical events. This driving simulator experiment aimed to establish whether pupillometry during hands-off Level 2 (L2) driving was a reliable indicator of cognitive load, and to examine whether relationships between pupillary dynamics and behaviour established in controlled laboratory paradigms generalise to applied tasks. The size and reactivity of drivers’ (N = 38) pupils were measured during hands-off L2 driving with and without a cognitive load task, followed by critical and non-critical transitions of control. Analysis revealed that mean, not standard deviation, of pupil diameter was a reliable indicator of cognitive load. Furthermore, higher baseline pupil diameter was associated with smaller TEPRs, and this relationship persisted after correcting for regression to the mean artefacts – suggesting that pre-stimulus pupillary state genuinely constrains subsequent TEPRs. Limited evidence was found that TEPRs or pre-stimulus pupillary variability predicted driver reaction times, potentially reflecting the motoric variability inherent in naturalistic driving responses. Finally, more critical events were associated with larger pupil diameter, indicating that drivers were exerting greater effort to manage the transition. These results indicate that pupillometry is a useful measure of cognitive load and that laboratory-established pupillometric relationships extend, at least partially, to applied driving contexts, with implications for the development of Driver Monitoring Systems (DMS).

Reproduced under the paper's license (CC BY), from the paper cited above.

Repository

Its files are read in the Code ↔ Paper reader above, with 9 matches between paragraphs and lines of code.

OSF vmxj3

License: none: the authors keep all their rights
State: the link answers, verified on 27 September 2026
Evidence: files inventoried
Languages: R (3)
Size: 33 files, 3 scripts
Software Heritage: not checked
Found in: “Data Availability”
Holds: 3 notebooks
Not found: README, license file, CITATION.cff, environment file, tests, continuous integration, documentation
Tools: data.table (3 files), ggplot2 (3 files), tidyverse (3 files), lme4 (2 files), lmerTest (2 files), mgcv (2 files), BayesFactor (1 file), brms (1 file), cowplot (1 file), easystats (1 file), emmeans (1 file), patchwork (1 file), Plotly (1 file), Stan (1 file)
Availability: 1 check, the latest on 27 September 2026: the link answers (HTTP 200)
  • 27 September 2026: the link answers (HTTP 200)
3 files, to read at the source

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At the source: osf.io/vmxj3

The paper's code and data availability statement is in the Data section.

Tracing map

Proposed by the machine: these links were found in the paper and verified at the source, without human review. The map will receive a Zenodo DOI once one of the paper's authors has validated it with their ORCID.

What the map holds:

  • 1 repository of the authors' code, each at its verified commit, with its license and how the link was found in the paper;
  • 3 scripts, each with its path and the digest of its content;
  • 9 matches between paragraphs of the paper and lines of the code (method lexical-v1);
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Data

No dataset and no data link were found in the paper.

Data Availability

Data, analysis code, and models can be found in the following link: https://osf.io/vmxj3.

Reproduced under the paper's license (CC BY), from the paper cited above.

Versions

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Version 1, 27 September 2026: the first record

Recorded: type, language, journal, volume, issue, pages, dates, 12 authors, 11 MeSH terms, 1 funder, 96 references.

Cite

This paper

Goodridge, C. M., Gonçalves, R. C., Arabian, A., Horrobin, A., Solernou, A., Lee, Y. T., Bruneau, A., Kuo, J., Lenné, M. G., Merlhiot, G., Lee, Y. M., & Merat, N. (2026). Pupillary dynamics during hands-off L2 driving and transitions of control under high cognitive load. PloS one, 21(8), e0355165. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355165

BibTeX

@article{goodridge2026pupillary,
author = {Goodridge, Courtney M. and Gonçalves, Rafael C. and Arabian, Ali and Horrobin, Anthony and Solernou, Albert and Lee, Yee Thung and Bruneau, Audrey and Kuo, Jonny and Lenné, Michael G. and Merlhiot, Gaëtan and Lee, Yee Mun and Merat, Natasha},
title = {{Pupillary dynamics during hands-off L2 driving and transitions of control under high cognitive load}},
journal = {PloS one},
year = {2026},
month = aug,
volume = {21},
number = {8},
pages = {e0355165},
publisher = {PLOS},
issn = {1932-6203},
doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0355165},
url = {https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355165},
pmid = {42579679},
pmcid = {PMC13460587}
}

RIS

TY - JOUR
AU - Goodridge, Courtney M.
AU - Gonçalves, Rafael C.
AU - Arabian, Ali
AU - Horrobin, Anthony
AU - Solernou, Albert
AU - Lee, Yee Thung
AU - Bruneau, Audrey
AU - Kuo, Jonny
AU - Lenné, Michael G.
AU - Merlhiot, Gaëtan
AU - Lee, Yee Mun
AU - Merat, Natasha
TI - Pupillary dynamics during hands-off L2 driving and transitions of control under high cognitive load
T2 - PloS one
J2 - PLoS One
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/08/11
VL - 21
IS - 8
SP - e0355165
SN - 1932-6203
PB - PLOS
DO - 10.1371/journal.pone.0355165
UR - https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0355165
LA - en
ER -

CSL-JSON

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