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Temporal Interference Modulates Medial Temporal and Frontoparietal Activity During Mnemonic Discrimination: A High-Resolution Whole-Brain fMRI Investigation.

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Paper

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The authors' code

C++ · 268 lines · 8.9 KB · no license

  1. //
  2. // canvas.cpp
  3. // BPSO
  4. //
  5. // Created by Craig Stark on 11/17/11.
  6. // Copyright 2011 Craig Stark. All rights reserved.
  7. //
  9. #include "wx/wxprec.h"
  10. #ifndef WX_PRECOMP
  11. #include "wx/wx.h"
  12. #endif
  13. #include <wx/app.h>
  14. #include <wx/filename.h>
  15. #include <wx/stdpaths.h>
  16. #include <wx/image.h>
  17. #include <wx/dcbuffer.h>
  18. #include <wx/utils.h>
  19. #include <wx/font.h>
  22. #include "main.h"
  23. #include "parameters.h"
  25. extern c_DisplayFrame *MainFrame;
  27. BEGIN_EVENT_TABLE(c_DisplayCanvas, wxWindow)
  28. EVT_PAINT(c_DisplayCanvas::OnPaint)
  29. EVT_KEY_DOWN(c_DisplayCanvas::OnKey)
  30. EVT_LEFT_DOWN(c_DisplayCanvas::OnLMouseClick)
  31. //EVT_ERASE_BACKGROUND(MyCanvas::OnErase)
  32. END_EVENT_TABLE()
  34. c_DisplayCanvas::c_DisplayCanvas(wxWindow *parent,int xsize,int ysize):
  35. wxWindow(parent, wxID_ANY,wxPoint(0,0),wxSize(xsize,ysize)) {
  36. DisplayedImage = NULL;
  37. DisplayState = 0;
  38. Response = 0;
  39. DisplayedImage = new wxImage(xsize,ysize,true);
  40. SetBackgroundStyle(wxBG_STYLE_CUSTOM);
  41. SetBackgroundColour(wxColour((unsigned char) 255, (unsigned char) 255,(unsigned char) 255));
  42. }
  45. void c_DisplayCanvas::OnPaint(wxPaintEvent& WXUNUSED(event)) {
  46. wxAutoBufferedPaintDC dc(this);
  47. wxArrayString TouchLabels;
  49. wxMemoryDC memDC;
  50. if (DisplayedImage && !DisplayedImage->IsOk())
  51. return;
  52. // if (DisplayState == DISP_Idle)
  53. // return;
  54. // PrepareDC(dc);
  55. wxSize sz = dc.GetSize();
  57. dc.SetFont(dc.GetFont().Scaled(2));
  58. static int i=0;
  59. i++;
  60. MainFrame->SetStatusText(wxString::Format("Resp %d %d",Response, i));
  61. if (DisplayState == DISP_Blank) // ISI
  62. dc.Clear();
  63. else if (DisplayState == DISP_Stim) { // Show image
  64. wxBitmap TempBitmap = wxBitmap(*DisplayedImage,24);
  65. memDC.SelectObject(TempBitmap);
  66. int xsize = DisplayedImage->GetWidth();
  67. int ysize = DisplayedImage->GetHeight();
  68. dc.Clear();
  69. dc.Blit((sz.GetWidth()-xsize)/2, (sz.GetHeight()-ysize)/2, xsize , ysize, &memDC, 0, 0, wxCOPY, false);
  70. }
  71. else if (DisplayState == DISP_StudyInstructions) { // Study instructions
  72. dc.Clear();
  73. wxString instructs = _("Indoor or Outdoor?");
  74. wxSize t_sz = dc.GetTextExtent(instructs);
  75. dc.DrawText(instructs,
  76. wxPoint((sz.GetWidth()-t_sz.GetWidth())/2, (sz.GetHeight()-t_sz.GetHeight())/2 - t_sz.GetHeight()));
  77. instructs = _("Press spacebar to start");
  78. t_sz = dc.GetTextExtent(instructs);
  79. dc.DrawText(instructs,
  80. wxPoint((sz.GetWidth()-t_sz.GetWidth())/2, (sz.GetHeight()-t_sz.GetHeight())/2 + t_sz.GetHeight()));
  81. }
  82. else if (DisplayState == DISP_TestInstructions) { // Test instructions
  83. dc.Clear();
  84. wxString instructs = _("Old, Similar, or New?");
  85. if (P_2ChoiceTest)
  86. instructs = _("Old or New?");
  88. wxSize t_sz = dc.GetTextExtent(instructs);
  89. dc.DrawText(instructs,
  90. wxPoint((sz.GetWidth()-t_sz.GetWidth())/2, (sz.GetHeight()-t_sz.GetHeight())/2 - t_sz.GetHeight()));
  91. instructs = _("Press spacebar to start");
  92. t_sz = dc.GetTextExtent(instructs);
  93. dc.DrawText(instructs,
  94. wxPoint((sz.GetWidth()-t_sz.GetWidth())/2, (sz.GetHeight()-t_sz.GetHeight())/2 + t_sz.GetHeight()));
  95. }
  96. else if (DisplayState == DISP_Idle) {
  97. if (Logo && Logo->IsOk()) {
  98. wxBitmap TempBitmap = wxBitmap(*Logo,24);
  99. memDC.SelectObject(TempBitmap);
  100. int xsize = Logo->GetWidth();
  101. int ysize = Logo->GetHeight();
  102. dc.Clear();
  103. dc.Blit((sz.GetWidth()-xsize)/2, (sz.GetHeight()-ysize)/2, xsize , ysize, &memDC, 0, 0, wxCOPY, false);
  105. }
  106. }
  107. // dc.DrawText(wxNow(),wxPoint(10,10));
  108. if ((P_AllowTouch) && (DisplayState != DISP_Idle)) {
  109. wxSize WindowSize = GetSize();
  110. dc.SetPen(*wxBLACK_DASHED_PEN);
  111. wxSize t_sz;
  112. if (P_NPossibleResponses == 2) {
  113. dc.DrawLine(WindowSize.x / 2,WindowSize.y,WindowSize.x / 2,(90 * WindowSize.y) / 100);
  114. if (P_TouchLabels.Count() == 2) {
  115. if (Response == RESP_1)
  116. dc.SetTextForeground(*wxBLUE);
  117. else
  118. dc.SetTextForeground(*wxBLACK);
  119. dc.DrawText(P_TouchLabels[0],
  120. wxPoint(WindowSize.x / 4 - (dc.GetTextExtent(P_TouchLabels[0]).GetWidth() / 2), (90 * WindowSize.y) / 100));
  121. if (Response == RESP_2)
  122. dc.SetTextForeground(*wxBLUE);
  123. else
  124. dc.SetTextForeground(*wxBLACK);
  125. dc.DrawText(P_TouchLabels[1],
  126. wxPoint(3 * WindowSize.x / 4 - (dc.GetTextExtent(P_TouchLabels[1]).GetWidth() / 2), (90 * WindowSize.y) / 100));
  127. }
  128. }
  129. else if (P_NPossibleResponses == 3) {
  130. dc.DrawLine(2*WindowSize.x / 3,WindowSize.y,2*WindowSize.x / 3,(90 * WindowSize.y) / 100);
  131. dc.DrawLine(WindowSize.x / 3,WindowSize.y,WindowSize.x / 3,(90 * WindowSize.y) / 100);
  132. if (P_TouchLabels.Count() == 3) {
  133. if (Response == RESP_1)
  134. dc.SetTextForeground(*wxBLUE);
  135. else
  136. dc.SetTextForeground(*wxBLACK);
  137. dc.DrawText(P_TouchLabels[0],
  138. wxPoint(WindowSize.x / 6 - (dc.GetTextExtent(P_TouchLabels[0]).GetWidth() / 2), (90 * WindowSize.y) / 100));
  139. if (Response == RESP_2)
  140. dc.SetTextForeground(*wxBLUE);
  141. else
  142. dc.SetTextForeground(*wxBLACK);
  143. dc.DrawText(P_TouchLabels[1],
  144. wxPoint(WindowSize.x / 2 - (dc.GetTextExtent(P_TouchLabels[1]).GetWidth() / 2), (90 * WindowSize.y) / 100));
  145. if (Response == RESP_3)
  146. dc.SetTextForeground(*wxBLUE);
  147. else
  148. dc.SetTextForeground(*wxBLACK);
  149. dc.DrawText(P_TouchLabels[2],
  150. wxPoint(5 * WindowSize.x / 6 - (dc.GetTextExtent(P_TouchLabels[2]).GetWidth() / 2), (90 * WindowSize.y) / 100));
  151. }
  152. }
  153. }
  154. memDC.SelectObject(wxNullBitmap);
  156. }
  158. void c_DisplayCanvas::OnKey(wxKeyEvent &evt) {
  159. wxUniChar r=evt.GetUnicodeKey();
  160. Response = 0;
  161. // wxMessageBox(wxString::Format("%c %u",(char) r, (unsigned int) r));
  162. if (r) { // standard key
  163. if (P_Resp1Keys.Find(r) != wxNOT_FOUND)
  164. Response = RESP_1;
  165. else if (P_Resp2Keys.Find(r) != wxNOT_FOUND)
  166. Response = RESP_2;
  167. else if (P_Resp3Keys.Find(r) != wxNOT_FOUND)
  168. Response = RESP_3;
  169. else if (r == WXK_SPACE) // Don't think these versions are used
  170. Response = RESP_Start;
  171. else if (r == WXK_ESCAPE)
  172. Response = RESP_Break;
  173. /* else if ((DisplayState == DISP_Idle) && (r==WXK_F10)) {
  174. if (P_CustomMode)
  175. P_CustomMode = 0;
  176. else
  177. P_CustomMode = 1;
  178. wxMessageBox(wxString::Format("JS mode set to %d",P_CustomMode));
  179. }*/
  180. }
  182. else {
  183. switch (evt.GetKeyCode()) {
  184. case WXK_SPACE:
  185. Response = RESP_Start;
  186. break;
  187. case WXK_ESCAPE:
  188. Response = RESP_Break;
  189. break;
  190. case WXK_F10:
  191. if (DisplayState == DISP_Idle) {
  192. if (P_CustomMode)
  193. P_CustomMode = 0;
  194. else
  195. P_CustomMode = 1;
  196. wxMessageBox(wxString::Format("JS Mode set to %d - restart to have effect",P_CustomMode));
  197. }
  198. break;
  199. }
  200. }
  202. if ((DisplayState == DISP_Blank) || (DisplayState == DISP_Stim)) {
  203. if (Response == RESP_Start) {
  204. Response = 0;
  205. }
  206. }
  207. if (Response) {
  208. RT = swatch.Time();
  209. // MainFrame->SetStatusText(wxString::Format("%d %ld",Response,RT));
  210. }
  211. if ( (DisplayState == DISP_Idle) && ( (Response==RESP_1) || (Response==RESP_2) || (Response==RESP_3)) ) {
  212. MainFrame->SetStatusText(wxString::Format("Resp %d",Response));
  213. wxTheApp->Yield(true);
  214. wxMilliSleep(200);
  215. MainFrame->SetStatusText("");
  216. Response = RESP_None;
  218. }
  219. }
  221. void c_DisplayCanvas::OnLMouseClick(wxMouseEvent &evt) {
  222. wxPoint click_location;
  223. click_location = evt.GetPosition();
  224. wxSize WindowSize = GetSize();
  225. Response = 0;
  227. if (click_location.y >= (90 * WindowSize.y / 100)) {
  228. if (P_NPossibleResponses == 2) {
  229. if (click_location.x < WindowSize.x / 2)
  230. Response = RESP_1;
  231. else
  232. Response = RESP_2;
  233. }
  234. else if (P_NPossibleResponses == 3) {
  235. if (click_location.x < WindowSize.x / 3)
  236. Response = RESP_1;
  237. else if (click_location.x < (2 * WindowSize.x / 3))
  238. Response = RESP_2;
  239. else
  240. Response = RESP_3;
  241. }
  242. }
  243. else if ((DisplayState == DISP_StudyInstructions) || (DisplayState == DISP_TestInstructions))
  244. Response = RESP_Start;
  246. if (Response) {
  247. RT = swatch.Time();
  248. // MainFrame->SetStatusText(wxString::Format("%d %ld",Response,RT));
  249. }
  251. if ( (DisplayState == DISP_Idle) && ( (Response==RESP_1) || (Response==RESP_2) || (Response==RESP_3)) ) {
  252. MainFrame->SetStatusText(wxString::Format("Resp %d",Response));
  253. wxTheApp->Yield(true);
  254. wxMilliSleep(200);
  255. MainFrame->SetStatusText("");
  256. Response = RESP_None;
  258. }
  259. this->Refresh();
  260. evt.Skip();
  262. }
  265. c_DisplayCanvas::~c_DisplayCanvas() {
  266. if (DisplayedImage) delete DisplayedImage;
  267. }

canvas.cpp at commit d67d6e7, no license · at the source

Overview

Authors: Min Sung Seo1, Rebecca L Wagner1, Jordan D Chamberlain1, Kelsey L Canada2, Nancy A Dennis1
ORCID iDs: Min Sung Seo, Rebecca L Wagner, Jordan D Chamberlain, Kelsey L Canada
  1. Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
  2. Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
Institutions: Pennsylvania State University (United States); University of Massachusetts Amherst (United States)
Journal: Hippocampus, volume 36, issue 6, article e70137
Dates: received 27 February 2026; accepted 20 September 2026; published online 1 October 2026; in print November 2026
Type: Research article · Language: English
License: CC BY
Identifiers: DOI 10.1002/hipo.70137 · PMID 42823833 · PMCID PMC13631462 · OpenAlex W7134048051
Open access: hybrid, a free copy (OpenAlex)
Preprint: doi:10.64898/2026.03.03.708601
Status: code verified (how the code is found and verified)
Categories: fMRI (modality), human (organism)
Methods: Connectivity, Statistics, Smoothing, state filtering, decompositions, Preprocessing, fMRI & imaging, Single-unit activity, calcium imaging
MeSH: Discrimination, Psychological*, Frontal Lobe*, Memory*, Parietal Lobe*, Temporal Lobe*, Brain Mapping, Female, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Photic Stimulation, Recognition, Psychology, Time Factors (* major topic)
Topic: Memory and Neural Mechanisms (Cognitive Neuroscience, Neuroscience), according to OpenAlex
Funding: National Science Foundation (BCS1025709, DGE1255832)
Citations: cited by 1 paper (Europe PMC); 119 references in the paper

Abstract

Mnemonic discrimination—the ability to distinguish between existing memories and similar new inputs—supports accurate memory in the face of interference (e.g., in a card game, recognizing that the card you are currently seeing, the King of Hearts, is distinct from the King of Diamonds you encountered earlier in the same hand). Although hippocampal pattern separation has been emphasized as a key mechanism for this process, recent theoretical frameworks and empirical findings suggest that surrounding medial temporal lobe and cortical regions also contribute by resolving interference. An important source of interference in everyday life is temporal interference: similar events may compete not only because they overlap perceptually, but also because they are separated by intervening experiences (e.g., distinguishing the King of Hearts you are currently holding in your hand from the King of Diamonds you encountered earlier in the game becomes increasingly difficult as additional cards are played and additional hands intervene between the two episodes). Here, we examined how temporal interference impacts mnemonic discrimination and its neural correlates using high‐resolution fMRI and a continuous recognition task in which the lag between an item's first presentation and its subsequent target or similar lure was systematically manipulated (10, 60, or 140 intervening trials). Behaviorally, increasing lag impaired both mnemonic discrimination and target recognition. At the neural level, lag effects were not observed in hippocampal subfields. Instead, temporal interference modulated activity in extrahippocampal MTL regions including parahippocampal and perirhinal cortex, as well as distributed cortical regions including frontoparietal control areas. Importantly, lag‐related modulation was process‐specific, with partially dissociable patterns for successful mnemonic discrimination and target recognition. Together, these findings demonstrate that temporal interference engages a distributed MTL‐cortical network that supports interference resolution during mnemonic discrimination.

Reproduced under the paper's license (CC BY), from the paper cited above.

Repository

Its files are read in the Code ↔ Paper reader above.

celstark/MST

License: none: the authors keep all their rights
State: the link answers, verified on 11 November 2026
Evidence: files inventoried
Commit: d67d6e723dffba37b14cdb5f2a5852d645dcdf39, 5 March 2025
Languages: MATLAB (8), Python (6), C++ (4), C/C++ (2)
Size: 4,421 files, 20 scripts
Software Heritage: not archived
Found in: the text, “Procedure”
Holds: README
Not found: license file, CITATION.cff, environment file, tests, continuous integration, documentation
Tools: NumPy (5 files), PsychoPy (4 files), SciPy (4 files), pandas (1 file)
Availability: 2 checks, the latest on 11 November 2026: the link answers
  • 11 November 2026: the link answers
  • 8 October 2026: the link answers
21 files
At the source: github.com/celstark/MST

Tracing map

Proposed by the machine: these links were found in the paper and verified at the source, without human review. The map will receive a Zenodo DOI once one of the paper's authors has validated it with their ORCID.

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  • 1 repository of the authors' code, each at its verified commit, with its license and how the link was found in the paper;
  • 20 scripts, each with its path and the digest of its content;
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Data

Datasets cited

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in OSF at https://osf.io/pjr5n.

Reproduced under the paper's license (CC BY), from the paper cited above.

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Version 1, 1 November 2026: the first record

Recorded: type, language, journal, volume, issue, pages, dates, 5 authors, 13 MeSH terms, 1 funder, 112 references.

Cite

This paper

Seo, M. S., Wagner, R. L., Chamberlain, J. D., Canada, K. L., & Dennis, N. A. (2026). Temporal Interference Modulates Medial Temporal and Frontoparietal Activity During Mnemonic Discrimination: A High-Resolution Whole-Brain fMRI Investigation. Hippocampus, 36(6), e70137. https://doi.org/10.1002/hipo.70137

BibTeX

@article{seo2026temporal,
author = {Seo, Min Sung and Wagner, Rebecca L and Chamberlain, Jordan D and Canada, Kelsey L and Dennis, Nancy A},
title = {{Temporal Interference Modulates Medial Temporal and Frontoparietal Activity During Mnemonic Discrimination: A High-Resolution Whole-Brain fMRI Investigation}},
journal = {Hippocampus},
year = {2026},
month = nov,
volume = {36},
number = {6},
pages = {e70137},
publisher = {Wiley},
issn = {1050-9631},
doi = {10.1002/hipo.70137},
url = {https://doi.org/10.1002/hipo.70137},
pmid = {42823833},
pmcid = {PMC13631462}
}

RIS

TY - JOUR
AU - Seo, Min Sung
AU - Wagner, Rebecca L
AU - Chamberlain, Jordan D
AU - Canada, Kelsey L
AU - Dennis, Nancy A
TI - Temporal Interference Modulates Medial Temporal and Frontoparietal Activity During Mnemonic Discrimination: A High-Resolution Whole-Brain fMRI Investigation
T2 - Hippocampus
J2 - Hippocampus
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/11/01
VL - 36
IS - 6
SP - e70137
SN - 1050-9631
PB - Wiley
DO - 10.1002/hipo.70137
UR - https://doi.org/10.1002/hipo.70137
LA - en
ER -

CSL-JSON

{
"id": "10.1002/hipo.70137",
"type": "article-journal",
"title": "Temporal Interference Modulates Medial Temporal and Frontoparietal Activity During Mnemonic Discrimination: A High-Resolution Whole-Brain fMRI Investigation",
"container-title": "Hippocampus",
"author": [
{
"family": "Seo",
"given": "Min Sung"
},
{
"family": "Wagner",
"given": "Rebecca L"
},
{
"family": "Chamberlain",
"given": "Jordan D"
},
{
"family": "Canada",
"given": "Kelsey L"
},
{
"family": "Dennis",
"given": "Nancy A"
}
],
"container-title-short": "Hippocampus",
"volume": "36",
"issue": "6",
"page": "e70137",
"DOI": "10.1002/hipo.70137",
"PMID": "42823833",
"PMCID": "PMC13631462",
"ISSN": "1050-9631",
"publisher": "Wiley",
"URL": "https://doi.org/10.1002/hipo.70137",
"language": "en",
"issued": {
"date-parts": [
[
2026,
11,
1
]
]
}
}

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