The longitudinal relation between adolescents' learning outcomes and internalizing symptoms: The role of ADHD symptoms.

Overview

1. Department of Developmental Psychopathology, Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
2. DIPF | Leibniz Institute for Research and Information in Education, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
3. Center for Research on Individual Development and Adaptive Education of Children at Risk (IDeA), Frankfurt am Main, Germany
4. Institute for Psychology, Heidelberg University of Education, Heidelberg, Germany
5. Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, TU Dortmund University, Germany

Abstract

Objective: The literature on bivariate relations between learning outcomes and symptoms of anxiety, depression, and ADHD is extensive. Much less research has been done into the trivariate longitudinal relations between learning outcomes, internalizing symptoms, and ADHD symptoms, which was the focus of the current study.

Method: The sample from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD-) Study was largely representative for the US population in terms of, i.e., race and ethnicity and included 11,867 children aged 9 or 10 years (47.8% female; 52.2% male) at the start.

Results: The results of bi- and trivariate latent change score modelling with four timepoints showed that school records and symptoms of anxiety or depression were related, but school records did not predict these symptoms at the next timepoint, nor the other way around. ADHD was associated with both school records and symptoms of anxiety/ depression. Depression symptoms were a negative leading indicator of subsequent changes in ADHD.

Conclusions: The results suggest that ADHD symptoms do not form the main explanatory factor for the relation between school records and internalizing symptoms. They imply that it is important to recognize signs of depression at an early stage, so that such secondary problems can be prevented. Future research is needed to find underlying risk factors that can explain comorbidity, which can help identifying children with increased risk at an early stage.

Reproduced under the paper's license (CC BY), from the paper cited above.

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Data

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Data Availability

The data underlying the results presented in the study stem from the ABCD study and are available from the NIH Brain Development Cohorts (NBDC) Data Sharing Platform (https://www.nbdc-datahub.org/abcd-study). The preregistration for this research are available at https://osf.io/yw5jv/overview?view_only=c258b240352a4d4fa3b309a79d656ce9. The analytic code necessary to reproduce the analyses is available at https://osf.io/gw8d3/overview?view_only=5bff385bc7074df8b9bd0bb75bf1e5f2.

Reproduced under the paper's license (CC BY), from the paper cited above.

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Version 1, 28 September 2026: the first record

Recorded: type, language, journal, volume, issue, pages, dates, 3 authors, 10 MeSH terms, 62 references.

Cite

This paper

Visser, L., Ehm, J.-H., & Brandenburg, J. (2026). The longitudinal relation between adolescents' learning outcomes and internalizing symptoms: The role of ADHD symptoms. PloS one, 21(5), e0347582. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0347582

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